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Conspiracy Bot Shows That Computers Can Be as Gullible as Humans. Computers believe in conspiracy theories now. The New Inquiry’s Francis Tseng trained a bot to recognize patterns in photos and draw links between similar pictures, forming the kind of conspiracy- theory diagram seen in the last act of a Homeland episode or the front page of Reddit. It’s a cute trick that reminds us that humans are gullible (hey, maybe those photos do match!), and that the machines we train to think for us could end up just as gullible. Humans are exceptionally good at pattern recognition. That’s great for learning and dealing with diverse environments, but it can get us in trouble: Some studies link pattern recognition to belief in conspiracy theories. The rise of machine learning is specifically targeted at closing this gap, teaching neural networks how to, say, recognize photos of birds or detect credit card fraud by feeding them vast quantities of data. What is Mobirise? 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The second, Fear Effect 2: Retro Helix, is infamous for its racy ad campaign, featuring two female character in suggestive poses with taglines like “These two ladies put the ass in assassin.”. Libro - Wikipedia. Un libro . I libri sono pertanto opere letterarie e talvolta una stessa opera . Nella biblioteconomia e scienza dell'informazione un libro . La biblioteca . Google ha stimato che al 2. Il vocabolo originariamente significava anche . Un'evoluzione identica ha sub. In russo ed in serbo, altra lingua slava, le parole . Se ne deduce che le prime scritture delle lingue indoeuropee possano esser state intagliate su legno di faggio. La scrittura, un sistema di segni durevoli che permette di trasmettere e conservare le informazioni, ha cominciato a svilupparsi tra il VII e il IV millennio a. C. In seguito . Lo studio di queste iscrizioni . La scrittura alfabetica emerse in Egitto circa 5. Gli antichi Egizi erano soliti scrivere scrivere sul papiro, una pianta coltivata lungo il fiume Nilo. Inizialmente i termini non erano separati l'uno dall'altro (scriptura continua) e non c'era punteggiatura. I testi venivano scritti da destra a sinistra, da sinistra a destra, e anche in modo che le linee alternate si leggessero in direzioni opposte. Il termine tecnico per questo tipo di scrittura, con un andamento che ricorda quello de solchi tracciati dall'aratro in un campo, . Furono infatti usate come mezzo di scrittura, specialmente per il cuneiforme, durante tutta l'Et. Servivano da materiale normale di scrittura nelle scuole, in contabilit. Avevano il vantaggio di essere riutilizzabili: la cera poteva essere fusa e riformare una . L'usanza di legare insieme diverse tavolette di cera (romano pugillares) . Erano utilizzate anche le cortecce di albero, come per esempio quelle della Tilia, e altri materiali consimili. La parola greca per papiro come materiale di scrittura (biblion) e libro (biblos) proviene dal porto fenicio di Biblo, da dove si esportava il papiro verso la Grecia. Tomus fu usato dai latini con lo stesso significato di volumen (vedi sotto anche la spiegazione di Isidoro di Siviglia). Che fossero fatti di papiro, pergamena o carta, i rotoli furono la forma libraria dominante della cultura ellenistica, romana, cinese ed ebraica. Il formato di codex si stabil. Viene chiamato codex per metafora di un tronco (codex) d'albero o di vite, come se fosse un ceppo di legno, poich. La prima menzione scritta del codice come forma di libro . Tuttavia, il codice non si guadagn. Gli autori cristiani potrebbero anche aver voluto distinguere i loro scritti dai testi pagani scritti su rotoli. La storia del libro continua a svilupparsi con la graduale transizione dal rotolo al codex, spostandosi dal Vicino Oriente del II- II millennio a. C. All'arrivo del Medioevo, circa mezzo millennio dopo, i codici - di foggia e costruzione in tutto simili al libro moderno - rimpiazzarono il rotolo e furono composti principalmente di pergamena. Il rotolo continu. Fu un cambiamento che influ. Quattro son troppi? Potrai pagarli due, e Trifone il libraio ci far. Haec tibi, multiplici quae structa est massa tabella, / Carmina Nasonis quinque decemque gerit. Questa mole composta da numerosi fogli contiene quindici libri poetici del Nasone »(Marziale XIV. Il libro antico. L'oggetto libro sub. Dal II secolo a. C. Nel mondo antico non godette di molta fortuna a causa del prezzo elevato rispetto a quello del papiro. Tuttavia aveva il vantaggio di una maggiore resistenza e la possibilit. Il libro in forma di rotolo consisteva in fogli preparati da fibre di papiro (phylire) disposte in uno strato orizzontale (lo strato che poi riceveva la scrittura) sovrapposto ad uno strato verticale (la faccia opposta). I fogli cos. La scrittura era effettuata su colonne, generalmente sul lato del papiro che presentava le fibre orizzontali. Non si hanno molte testimonianze sui rotoli di pergamena tuttavia la loro forma era simile a quella dei libri in papiro. Gli inchiostri neri utilizzati erano a base di nerofumo e gomma arabica. Dal II secolo d. C. La vecchia forma libraria a rotolo scompare in ambito librario. In forma notevolmente differente permane invece in ambito archivistico. Nel Medio Evo si fanno strada alcune innovazioni: nuovi inchiostri ferro gallici e, a partire dalla met. Il prezzo molto basso di questo materiale, ricavato da stracci e quindi pi. Ma bisogna aspettare la seconda met. Questo mezzo, permettendo l'accelerazione della produzione delle copie di testi contribuisce alla diffusione del libro e della cultura. La parola membranae, letteralmente . Altri suoi distici rivelano che tra i regali fatti da Marziale c'erano copie di Virgilio, di Cicerone e Livio. Le parole di Marziale danno la distinta impressione che tali edizioni fossero qualcosa di recentemente introdotto. Il codice si origin. Quando c'era bisogno di pi. Sono stati rinvenuti . Nel tempo, furono anche disponibili modelli di lusso fatti con tavolette di avorio invece che di legno. I romani chiamarono tali tavolette col nome di codex e solo molto pi. Ad un certo punto i romani inventarono un taccuino pi. Il passo fu breve dall'usare due o tre fogli come taccuino al legarne insieme una certa quantit. Il grande vantaggio che offrivano rispetto ai rolli era la capienza, vantaggio che sorgeva dal fatto che la facciata esterna del rotolo era lasciata in bianco, vuota. Il codice invece aveva scritte entrambe le facciate di ogni pagina, come in un libro moderno.(LA). Quam brevis inmensum cepit membrana Maronem! Ipsius vultus prima tabella gerit. La prima pagina porta il volto del poeta. Ma copie erano anche fatte di fogli di papiro. In Egitto, dove cresceva la pianta del papiro ed era centro della sua manifattura per materiale scrittorio, il codex di tale materiale era naturalmente pi. Quando i greci ed i romani disponevano solo del rotolo per scrivere libri, si preferiva usare il papiro piuttosto che la pergamena. Fece la sua comparsa in Egitto non molto dopo il tempo di Marziale, nel II secolo d. C., o forse anche prima, alla fine del I secolo. Il suo debutto fu modesto. A tutt'oggi sono stati rinvenuti 1. Nel terzo secolo la percentuale aumenta dall'1,5% a circa il 1. Verso il 3. 00 d. C. Il rotolo comunque aveva ancora parecchi secoli davanti a s. In teoria, in Egitto, terra ricca di pianta di papiro, il codice papiraceo avrebbe dovuto regnar supremo, ma non fu cos. Sebbene gli undici codici della Bibbia datati in quel secolo fossero papiracei, esistono circa 1. Non ne scegliemmo alcuno, ma ne raccogliemmo altri otto per i quali gli diedi 1. Il codex tanto apprezzato da Marziale aveva quindi fatto molta strada da Roma. Nel terzo secolo, quando tali codici divennero alquanto diffusi, quelli di pergamena iniziarono ad essere popolari. Il numero totale di codici sopravvissuti correntemente ammontano a pi. Nel quarto secolo la percentuale si alza al 3. V secolo. In breve, anche in Egitto, la fonte mondiale del papiro, il codice di pergamena occupava una notevole quota di mercato. Sono tutti di pergamena, edizioni eleganti, scritti in elaborata calligrafia su sottili fogli di pergamena. Per tali edizioni di lusso il papiro era certamente inadatto. Titoli di compilazioni celebri, il Codice teodosiano promulgato nel 4. Codice giustinianeo promulgato nel 5. Dall'altro lato, basandoci sulle annotazioni di Libanio, intellettuale del IV secolo che nelle sue molteplici attivit. Le ragioni erano buone: la pergamena poteva resistere a maltrattamenti vari, il codice poteva venir consultato velocemente per riferimenti giuridici, sentenze e giudizi, e cos. La pergamena usata doveva certo essere di bassa qualit. Il peso era per. Il papiro divenne difficile da reperire a causa della mancanza di contatti con l'Antico Egitto e la pergamena, che era stata usata da secoli, divenne il materiale di scrittura principale. I monasteri continuarono la tradizione scritturale latina dell'Impero romano d'Occidente. Cassiodoro, nel Monastero di Vivario (fondato verso il 5. XLVIII), che riserva certi momenti alla lettura, influenz. La tradizione e lo stile dell'Impero romano predominava ancora, ma gradualmente emerse la cultura peculiare libro medievale. Prima dell'invenzione e adozione del torchio calcografico, quasi tutti i libri venivano copiati a mano, il che rendeva i libri costosi e relativamente rari. I piccoli monasteri di solito possedevano poche dozzine di libri, forse qualche centinaio quelli di medie dimensioni. Con il IX secolo, le pi! Alcuni di questi esemplari sono esposti nei musei. La luce artificiale era proibita per paura che potesse danneggiare i manoscritti. Esistevano cinque tipi di scribi. La pergamena doveva essere preparata, poi le pagine libere venivano pianificate e rigate con uno strumento appuntito o un piombo, dopo di che il testo era scritto dallo scriba, che di solito lasciava aree vuote a scopo illustrativo e rubricativo. Infine, il libro veniva rilegato dal rilegatore. Esistono testi scritti in rosso o addirittura in oro, e diversi colori venivano utilizzati per le miniature. A volte la pergamena era tutta di colore viola e il testo vi era scritto in oro o argento (per esempio, il Codex Argenteus). Tuttavia, l'uso di spazi tra le parole non divenne comune prima del XII secolo. Si sostiene che l'uso di spaziatura tra parole dimostra il passaggio dalla lettura semi- vocalizzata a quella silenziosa. Le copertine erano fatte di legno e ricoperte di cuoio. Durante il Tardo Medioevo, quando cominciarono a sorgere le biblioteche pubbliche, e fino al XVIII secolo, i libri venivano spesso incatenati ad una libreria o scrivania per impedirne il furto. Questi libri attaccati a catena sono chiamati libri catenati. Vedi illustrazione a margine. Dapprima, i libri erano copiati prevalentemente nei monasteri, uno alla volta. Con l'apparire delle universit. I libri furono divisi in fogli non legati (pecia), che furono distribuiti a differenti copisti e di conseguenza la velocit. Il sistema venne gestito da corporazioni secolari di cartolai, che produssero sia materiale religioso che laico. Secondo la tradizione ebraica, il rotolo della Torah posto nella sinagoga deve esser scritto a mano su pergamena e quindi un libro stampato non . Lo scriba ebraico (sofer) . 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Aktuelle Version für Windows7+8, Vista, XP, 2000. ![]() Driver/OS: Last Update: Driver Searches: Driver Downloads: Reported Installation Success Rate: Reported Reason for Installation failure: CP2102 USB to UART Bridge. Download Page. Please read the Conditions of Use before downloading any files. New users are recommended to download the standard edition of GPS Utility. DriverIdentifier is a free software, it has the largest windows driver database for all laptops & desktops. With Driver Identifier you can find drvier for your webcam. Global Positioning System - Wikipedia. This article is about the American system. It is not to be confused with other similar systems (GNSS), such as the Russian (GLONASS), Chinese (Bei. Dou- 2) or European (Galileo). Global Positioning System. Country/ies of origin. United States. Operator(s)AFSPCType. Military, civilian. Status. Operational. Coverage. Global. Accuracy. 5 meters. Constellation size. Total satellites. Satellites in orbit. First launch. February 1. Total launches. 72. Orbital characteristics. Regime(s)6x MEO planes. Orbital height. 20,1. The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS. It is a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. However, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1. Kargil War. Department of Defense developed the system, which originally used 2. It became fully operational in 1. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A. Getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. In 2. 00. 0, the U. S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a potential denial of access by the US government. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid- 2. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to 1. This was corrected for in the design of GPS. Two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), decided to monitor Sputnik's radio transmissions. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. The next spring, Frank Mc. Clure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem — pinpointing the user's location, given that of the satellite. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required by GPS. In the 1. 97. 0s, the ground- based OMEGA navigation system, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy. While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those was seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research, development, deployment, and operation for a constellation of navigation satellites. During the Cold Wararms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded. It is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time. The nuclear triad consisted of the United States Navy's submarine- launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier. Precise navigation would enable United States ballistic missile submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs. The Navy and Air Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem. To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms (comparable to the Russian SS- 2. SS- 2. 5) and so the need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation. In 1. 96. 0, the Air Force proposed a radio- navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3- D LORAN. A follow- on study, Project 5. The Naval Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1. In 1. 96. 4, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying. A fourth ground- based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1. GPS can be thought of as an evolution of the SECOR system where the ground- based transmitters have been migrated into orbit. Development. It was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became GPS was created. Later that year, the DNSS program was named Navstar, or Navigation System Using Timing and Ranging. Located at Hanscom Air Force Base, outside Boston, the lab was renamed the Air Force Geophysical Research Lab (AFGRL) in 1. AFGRL developed the Klobuchar Model for computing ionospheric corrections to GPS location. She was concerned with the curving of the path of radio waves traversing the ionosphere from Nav. STAR satellites. The GPS program cost at this point, not including the cost of the user equipment, but including the costs of the satellite launches, has been estimated at about USD 5 billion (then- year dollars). Easton is widely credited as the primary inventor of GPS. Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed with President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive to turn off Selective Availability May 1, 2. The directive was proposed by the U. S. Secretary of Defense, William Perry, because of the widespread growth of differential GPS services to improve civilian accuracy and eliminate the U. S. Moreover, the U. S. Modernization of the satellite system has been an ongoing initiative by the U. S. Department of Defense through a series of satellite acquisitions to meet the growing needs of the military, civilians, and the commercial market. As of early 2. 01. FAA grade, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) GPS receivers provide horizontal accuracy of better than 3. The Department of Defense is the steward of GPS. The Interagency GPS Executive Board (IGEB) oversaw GPS policy matters from 1. After that the National Space- Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2. GPS and related systems. Its membership includes equivalent- level officials from the Departments of State, Commerce, and Homeland Security, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and NASA. Components of the executive office of the president participate as observers to the executive committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaison. The U. S. Department of Defense is required by law to . President Ronald Reagan announced that GPS would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed. President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive. Bush updated the national policy and replaced the executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space- Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing. Air Force awarded the contract to develop the GPS Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX) to improve accuracy and availability of GPS navigation signals, and serve as a critical part of GPS modernization. On February 1. 0, 1. National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1. Robert J. Collier Trophy, the nation's most prestigious aviation award. This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors them . Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 1. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U. S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A. F. B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2, 2. GPS conducted as part of Project 6. B. In 1. 99. 8, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation. Space Technology Hall of Fame. The IAF Honors and Awards Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program and the exemplary role it has played in building international collaboration for the benefit of humanity. Basic concept of GPS. The satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and to ground clocks. Any drift from true time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. Likewise, the satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well; however, they are usually not synchronized with true time, and are less stable. GPS satellites continuously transmit their current time and position. A GPS receiver monitors multiple satellites and solves equations to determine the precise position of the receiver and its deviation from true time. At a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and clock deviation from satellite time). More detailed description. By time- aligning a receiver- generated version and the receiver- measured version of the code, the time of arrival (TOA) of a defined point in the code sequence, called an epoch, can be found in the receiver clock time scale. A message that includes the time of transmission (TOT) of the code epoch (in GPS system time scale) and the satellite position at that time. 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Electric golf carts have become a mainstay on golf courses around the country, and have become more. ![]() This is by no means a comprehensive history — which would take at least one book, if not an encyclopedia. This article will merely highlight some important milestones and provide information not otherwise readily available. For those who wish to dig deeper, your time and your pocketbook are the only limits. We who are associated with hvacr don’t often pause to consider the antiquity of our craft. As much as 1. 5 million years ago, early humans began using campfires. The hows and whys can only be speculated upon, but we do know from archeological evidence that Homo erectus and Austra- lopithecus used fire at that time as a practical tool. At some point the campfire was brought inside caves and huts. The oldest arrangement was a central fire and a central roof opening for smoke to escape. Later the fire was moved to different parts of a dwelling, and various schemes were tried to improve the draft of the fire by using stones. However, even the best open fire is 2. Ancient Space Heating Early central heating seems to have developed along several lines that included hearths and fireplaces, stoves, and underfloor systems. Fixed central hearths date as far back as 2. B. C. They were excavated in Greece. Crude fireplace heating was used as early as the 8. A. D., and was widespread in Europe by the 1. Castles built at that time had fireplaces that had a short flue to the outside, a crude form of chimney. All of the early fireplaces were constructed entirely of stone, but casting technology improvements led to the introduction of cast iron firebacks designed to protect the stone from direct fire heat. Louis Savot of France invented the raised grate and designed a circulating fireplace in the early 1. Savot used a hollow iron bottom and back in the hearth, through which cold room air entered at the bottom, was warmed, and entered the room through openings above the mantle. In England, another improvement was to provide combustion air through a duct from the outside. A French priest (actually a Cardinal) wrote the first comprehensive manual on fireplace design, Mechanique du Feu, in 1. The science of fireplace construction reached its zenith with Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, who published Chimney Fireplaces in 1. Like fireplaces, stoves also first appeared in the 8. Masonry stoves became common in northern Europe by the 1. The stoves, called Russian or Swedish stoves, were very large. Later versions were very ornate, with tile coverings. The earliest metal stoves, appearing after 1. Later, cast iron sections were designed specifically for stove construction, and Holland and Germany became leading centers for iron stove manufacturing. Ancient Radiant Heating Underfloor heating systems, the original radiant panel systems, seem to have first appeared in the Middle East. King Arzawa installed such a system in his palace at Beycesutan, Turkey, about 1. B. C. The Romans brought the technology to high art, beginning about 8. B. C. At first the Roman systems heated only the floor, but later systems used heated walls as well, and some were designed as early warm- air heating systems, introducing heated air through floor openings. The first systems supported the stone floor on pillars over a chamber with a fire at one end. Combustion gases passed under the floor to the other side. The hollow space below the floor was called the hypocaust, and this name was applied to all the variations of Roman heating systems where an underfloor chamber was used. Later systems used tile flues or hollow tile walls to conduct heated combustion products to eave vents. The fire was moved outside in a separate furnace chamber. Still later, the hypocaust chamber was eliminated and replaced by floor ducts leading from the furnace to the wall flues. Roman hypocaust heating systems were used to heat upper- class Roman houses throughout the empire, but are most noted for use as heating systems for public baths. Between 1. 0 B. C. The hypocaust for the audience hall of the bath operated with a floor temperature of 7. The system, of course, was not automatic and not easily controlled. It took two days to preheat. The art and science of hypocaust systems was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire. Western heating science advanced very little in the period of the Dark Ages. Modern Beginnings: Chimneys And Stoves The next important advance in heating was the invention of the chimney. The origins of the chimney flue probably lie with the Normans, who used sidewall flue openings in place of the previously used central roof vents. Many sidewall flues were constructed at an oblique angle upward, thus beginning a transition to vertical chimney construction. After the 1. 4th century, chimneys appear in written literature. However, their use seems to have spread very slowly. Chimneys were still rare enough 2. English architect, upon encountering functioning chimneys at Bolton Castle, exclaimed: “I muche notyd in the hawle of Bolton, how chimneys were conveyed by tunnells made on the syds of the walls. But the size precipitated such vicious drafts that room divider screens sometimes had to be used to shield the occupants. Stove heating soon advanced beyond the crude devices first used. The first freestanding warm- air stove was probably the “Furnus Acapnos” or “smokeless stove” invented by Dalesme in France in the late 1. Dalesme introduced fresh fuel in the same opening as combustion air, directing all combustion products over already- burning fuel, a design that ensured complete combustion. Although the smokeless stove was a great advance, it and other heating innovations were accepted slowly, for “. John Clarke of the Massachusetts Bay Colony about 1. This type of stove had originated in Holland and was imported into England after 1. By the mid- 1. 70. Colonial American foundries. Stoves continued evolving throughout the 1. Notable improvements included the base burner stove invented by Eliphalet Knott in 1. Isaac Orr in 1. 83. A stove with thermostatic draft control was invented by F. P. Oliver in 1. 84. By the time of the Civil War, cast iron stove manufacturing was a large and well- established industry, particularly in the northeastern U. S. By 1. 90. 0, thousands of different designs (many approaching pieces of art in their appearance) were produced by dozens of manufacturers. Heating With Warm Air Warm- air heating as we know it may date to around the year 2. Emperor Heliogabalus is said to have had a palace warmed by air. A stove was placed in a brick chamber under the rooms. Outside air was ducted into the chamber under the stove, the heated air then flowing through openings into the rooms above. The first good records of a warm- air system date to the 1. These records indicate that the city hall in Luneberg, Germany had a central warm- air system using three furnaces. The heating chamber connected to the rooms above with round ducts that opened under seats. Temperature was individually regulated with iron covers over the duct openings. A similar system was constructed about the same time at Marburg Castle in Germany. The Industrial Revolution provided the catalyst for more advanced warm- air systems. In England about 1. William Strutt invented a warm- air furnace that consisted of a riveted, wrought iron air chamber encased in brick. A couple inches of space between the brick and the iron allowed air to circulate. A large space outside the brick was split horizontally into two sections, the lower one for cool air and the upper one for heated air. A multitude of 2- sq- in. Cool air moved from the lower chamber through the openings, was heated by the iron furnace, and moved out through the upper openings into the heated air chamber. Ducts fed the heated air into rooms, and the room openings were fitted with dampers “to regulate the admission of warm air at pleasure.” Strutt’s hot air furnaces were referred to as “cockle,” “Belper,” or “Derby” stoves. At about the same time, firetube hot air furnaces were invented in France. These “caloriferes” were constructed with a number of iron pipes placed at a slight pitch through the brick faces of a fire chamber. The cool air entered at one face, was heated in the pipes exposed directly to the fire, and exited at the other face. Technically, the cockle and calorifere furnaces were important advances, but their constructors knew very little more about the true principles of hot air heating than did their ancient predecessors. A more scientific approach emerged when Professor Dr. Paul Meissner of the Vienna Polytechnical Institute, Vienna, Austria, published a book on heating with hot air in 1. He was the first to recognize that provisions must be made to draw off cool air as warm air is admitted to a room; that this cool air could be returned to the furnace for reheating; and he even proposed the use of mixing dampers. Meissner was vociferously attacked by stove makers of the time. ![]() The average price to hire an architect is $4,666. See architects’ fee options and the average architectural fees for residential projects near you! Archives and past articles from the Philadelphia Inquirer, Philadelphia Daily News, and Philly.com. Ikea Kitchen Renovation Cost breakdown. 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